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Some of it comes from experience, i.e. getting to know shapes, styles, grinds, etc, but that is very rough dating. Symbols can be helpful, like VR, WR GR etc for the different royal periods. Mainly...

Scales on the first one are likely vulcanite, not a chance of being tortoise. Not sure where the idea that tortoise severely darkens over time comes from, there's tortoise from the 1700s that's...